Fragmented ecosystems: People and forests in the mountains of Switzerland and New Zealand

The mountain forests of Switzerland and New Zealand have been modified by people, plants, and animals, albeit at different times and in distinctive ways. In both countries, what had been extensive wooded tracts at the start of human settlement were progressively converted by settlers to heterogeneous forest patches surrounded by pasture and other managed systems. Some native species thrived, others became rare, and a relatively small number disappeared. At the same time, exotic plant and animal species became established in remaining areas of forest and have had diverse impacts on the native biota. In both countries, from the 1870s onward, laws were enacted to protect native forest ecosystems. Targeted programmes of pest plant and animal control, new regional and national patterns of economic activity, the slow retreat of commercial farming from economically marginal lands, competition from cheap imported wood in Switzerland, and a heightened conservation ethic are expected to facilitate the reestablishment of native forest ecosystems in the mountains of both countries.