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Problems arising from water scarcity and water-induced disasters are increasing due to factors induced by climatic variability as well as anthropogenic changes
. In such a situation, power inherent to social hierarchy has become a means of controlling water resources and securing access. Moreover, in many cases the increased competition for water has led some to achieve individual water goals at the cost of collective goals, creating social conflict and chaos and further increasing gender inequity in water. Water related decisions are important not only to ensure access to water, but also to gain and expand the power base that is built through accessing water. Water decisions are gendered and often in the hands of some powerful men in most societies. Access to water is often a challenge for women and marginalized members of society. Given the changing demographics of Nepal, with increased long-term male migration for remittance-based foreign employment, the overall responsibilities, including water works, have fallen on women’s shoulders. Gender concerns in water sector development have hence become more important than ever
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In this article, using the Department of Irrigation in Nepal as a case study, we argue that professional performance in irrigation engineering and water resources development is gendered and normalised as ‘masculine’
. In Nepal, the masculinity of professional performance in irrigation engineering is located in intersections of gender, class, caste, ethnicity, sexuality, nationality and disciplinary education, and hinders especially female engineers to perform as a ‘normal’ engineer. Our analysis is based on interviews with male and female engineers in the department, documentation research, and ethnographic observations in the period 2005–2011. Our study suggests that professional performances and engineering identities in the organisation have always been tied to performances of masculinity. This implies that career prospects in the Nepalese irrigation department for female engineers remain grim; because for them to succeed and belong, they have to reconcile the near incommensurable: a performance of a ‘lady engineer’ with that of a ‘normal’ engineer
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Dandekhya, S.; England, M.; Ghate, R.; Goodrich, C. G.; Nepal, S.; Prakash, A.; Shrestha, A.; Singh, S.; Shrestha, M. S.; Udas, P. B.
The Gandaki river basin is a transboundary basin lying north-south in the central Himalayan region
. It extends from China in the north, through Nepal, to India in the south and is bounded by the Karnali basin to the west and the Koshi basin to the east (Figure 1). The basin has a total drainage area of 46,300 km2 – 72% in Nepal, 18% in India, and 10% in China – and includes part of Xiagaze prefecture in Tibet Autonomous Region in China, 19 districts in Nepal (12 entirely and 7 partially within the basin), and 9 districts in India. The Gandaki river is known as the Narayani in the plains of Nepal and as the Gandak in India, where it joins the Ganges (Ganga) at Hajipur near Patna. It has seven major tributaries (the Kali Gandaki, Seti Gandaki, Madi, Marsyangdi, Daraudi, Budhi Gandaki, and Trishuli), of which all except the Daraudi and Madi have catchment areas with glaciers (Bajracharya and Shrestha 2011). There are 1,710 glaciers in the upstream catchments (as of 2005), with an area of 2,285 km2 and estimated ice reserves of 194 km3 (Bajracharya and Shrestha 2011: 56). Many smaller rivers and rivulets also drain into the Gandaki including, for example, the east Rapti river, which joins the river at Chitwan
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Gender and gendered differences are socially constructed, reflecting the situated social and cultural norms at a particular spatial and temporal juncture
. These constructions are not constant but erformative; unstable and changing over time to reflect evolving realities
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The incorporation of a gender perspective in a policy document reflects the desire to alter exisiting gender relations in favour of creating a gender just society
. Nepalese water policy in three sectors: irrigation, drinking water and watershed/forest has adopted quota systems to include women members in users' committees. As a result, women's representation in formal bodies has become mandatory in a situation where women are socially discouraged from participating in formal decision-making bodies. Women's participation in water users' committees is not only important for addressing women's water needs but also for ensuring their access to this vital resource. These formal bodies often play a major role in larger politics and form alliances to address water issues and access other resources
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