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Springs are the most important source of water for millions of people in the mid-hills of the Himalaya
. Both rural and urban communities depend on springs for meeting their drinking, domestic, and agricultural water needs. There is now increasing evidence of springs drying up or their discharge reducing, as a result of which communities are facing water stress. The science of springs and hydrogeology are usually not well understood; aspects like linking recharge areas, the movement of groundwater and the difference between ‘source’ and ‘resource’ of springshed systems need to be demystified to local communities, administrators, and landowners. Springs are also part of complex social and informal governance systems, which are often inadequate both in terms of governance and management of the sources. This can also lead to disruption in the recharge areas. To provide more insights into these issues, this Working Paper identifies and maps spring systems, water budgeting, groundwater flows, and governance issues around the pilot areas of the Chibo–Pashyor watershed of Kalimpong. A total of 55 springs were mapped in the study site and 12 critical springs were selected for monitoring and detailed study, based on vulnerability criteria developed for this research. An analysis of water access, discharge, and budgeting, based on the “National Rural Drinking Water Programme Guidelines 2013”, was also conducted. Furthermore, in order to understand spring sources and resources as well as recharge areas, hydrogeological and lithological studies were conducted. For this study, understanding groundwater flow was critical. Groundwater is stored and transmitted through aquifers. So, an aquifer is considered the basic element in any study of groundwater or watershed development. Spring water is part of the groundwater system and only becomes “surface water” after flowing into a surface waterbody such as a stream or a lake. Based on a study of critical springs in the watershed, the paper presents a set of recommendations related to key issues of governance and management. It also explains the science behind the drying up of springs in the study area. Finally, key take-home messages for communities, practitioners, and administrators are provided to promote conservation of these springs for the future water security of the area, and to link it to climate change adaptation actions
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Mallick, D.; Dilshad, T.; Naznin, Z.; Hassan, T. S. M.; Md. Syed, A.; Goodrich, C. G.; Udas, B. P.; Prakash, A.; Anwar, M. Z.; Habib, N.; Abbasi, S. S.; Khan, Q.; Ali, M.; Qureshi, A. H.; Batool, S.; Bhadwal, S.; Khandekar, N.; Gorti, G.; Mini, G.; Varma, N.; Sharma, G.; Luitel, M.; Nyima, K.; Tamang, D. D.
This synthesis report summarizes findings from a participatory assessment of socio-economic drivers, conditions, and climatic and environmental stresses leading to different levels of vulnerabilities in the Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) region
. The study sites included high mountain, mid-hill, and downstream regions of the Indus, Upper Ganga, Gandaki, and Teesta– a tributary of the Brahmaputra River – basins. An integrated and multidimensional approach was adopted to understand social drivers, conditions, climate stresses, and multiple causes of vulnerability. Community perceptions about major socio-economic drivers and conditions were collected in geographical contexts. Upstream regions are characterized by an abrupt rise in topography, extremely rugged terrain, steep slopes, and deeply cut valleys. Midstream characteristics include hills with large areas of dense broad-leaved and mixed forest and extensive agriculture, often on terraced slopes. Downstream areas are mostly flat and characterized by vast floodplains that are prone to flood and river erosion
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Shakya, B.; Shrestha, A.; Sharma, G.; Gurung, T.; Mihin, D.; Yang, S.; Jamir, A.; Win, S.; Han, X.; Yang, Y.; Choudhury, D.; Schneider, F.
Mountain farming systems rely on both empirical and academic knowledge
. Their sustainability depends on how effectively diverse knowledge is used for solution-oriented decision making. For mountains, decisions must be conducive to rural farmers whose livelihoods depend on agriculture and related activities. Adopting transdisciplinary research approach, we define a composite Sustainability Space indicator that will help decision makers better understand the ingredients for sustainability, and formulate policy and management decisions to reinforce on-the-ground sustainability. Sustainability Space was derived through analysis of the positive and negative impact factors co-defined by community and disciplinary experts, and visualized through a radar diagram. We used Principal Component Analysis to understand relationships between factors. The results on Sustainability Spaces for eight cases of farming systems from the far-Eastern Himalayas indicated that the sustainability of farming systems is strengthened if decisions holistically cater to (i) geophysical pre-requisites, (ii) ecological foundations, (iii) integrated processes and practices, (iv) resources, knowledge, and value systems, (v) stakeholders’ development and economic aspirations, (vi) well-being of farming communities, and (vii) government support mechanisms. More equitable the attention to these seven components, the higher the sustainability of farming systems in this region could be
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Syed, A.; Haq, A.; Uzzaman, A.; Goodrich, C.G.; Mallick, D.; Mini, G.; Sharma, G.; Nyima, K.; Mamnun, N.; Varma, N.; Singh, P.; Ghate, R.; Triwedi, S.; Sen, S.; Bhadwal, S.; Hassan, T.; Dilshad, T.; Gulati, V.; Naznin, Z.
This working paper summarizes the situational analysis of upstream, mid-stream and downstream areas of Teesta subbasin of greater Brahmaputra basin
. The situational analysis contains the condition of the people and ecosystems of the Teesta basin, including a summary of historical trends and stresses and identification of major issues that require attention through regional policies cooperation and action. Teesta river is 414 km long with a total catchment area of 12,159 km2. Teesta basin is home to around 30 million people, 2% in Sikkim, 27% in West Bengal; and 71% in northwest Bangladesh of which 78% are rural and 22% urban. Sikkim is mountainous with very low population density, whereas West Bengal has a mix of low hills and plains, and in Bangladesh the terrain is almost flat. There are two large barrages on Teesta that diverts water for mainly irrigation purpose: one at Gajoldobha in India and the other at Duani in Bangladesh
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This Farmers Resource Book is based on a series of field consultations with large cardamom growers, field observations, focus group discussions, and surveys conducted in the large cardamom farming areas of Sikkim and the Kalimpong region of West Bengal, India, and Taplejung District, Nepal
. A large amount of available literature was reviewed to relate and validate the information. This Farmers Resource Book is a ready-made guide for large cardamom farmers to learn, share, and exchange knowledge and experiences for reviving and expanding large cardamom cultivation in Nepal and elsewhere. It is envisaged that the cultivation of large cardamom, adopting appropriate climate-resilient practices and management procedures, will bring a significant change in the sustainability of agro ecologically sound large cardamom-based traditional farming systems. This change will contribute immensely to the improvement of livelihoods of the marginal farmers in Nepal and in other countries where large cardamom is growing
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Large cardamom (Amomum subulatum Roxb
.) is the main cash crop and an important livelihood option for farming communities in the eastern Himalayas – especially Sikkim, parts of West Bengal, eastern Nepal, and southern Bhutan. The crop is self-fertile but requires cross pollination for production of capsules. Scientific information on the eco-biology of large cardamom pollination is scarce, but studies have shown bumblebees to be the main pollinators. Previous studies have indicated contradictory results on the role of indigenous honeybees, particularly Apis cerana, in pollination of large cardamom. Some studies reported that Apis cerana was a ‘pollen robber’ that collects all the pollen from a flower without actually pollinating it, resulting in severe crop decline. However, beekeeping is common in large cardamom farming areas of Sikkim and Nepal and the bee is a common visitor to the flowers. Farmers in these areas have never observed a decline in large cardamom yield due to the presence of Apis cerana. This publication describes the results of a detailed investigation into the role of Apis cerana in large cardamom pollination, designed to establish whether the bee is a pollinator or pollen robber and determine its impact on crop yield and quality. The research was conducted on farmers’ fields located at different sites in Sikkim, India: Lingee Payong (1,100 masl) and Hee Martam (1,500 masl) in West Sikkim, and Jaubari (2,000 masl) in South Sikkim. The methodology consisted of on-farm experimental research and data collection through regular field observations, and a review of the literature on large cardamom pollination. Three experimental procedures were used at each site: (i) observations of the foraging behaviour of Apis cerana bees on cardamom flowers, and the impact of pollination by Apis cerana and other pollinators on capsule yield and quality (capsule weight and number of seeds per capsule), in a plot with a medium-sized healthy colony of Apis cerana placed at the centre; (ii) observations of the foraging behaviour of bumblebees and other pollinators, and of capsule yield and quality, in a plot about 250 m away from the plot containing the Apis cerana colony; and (iii) observations of capsule yield and quality in plants caged in a nylon net (3 x 3 x 3 m) to exclude all pollinators as a control. The results of the study showed that Apis cerana is an effective pollinator of large cardamom. Although the Apis cerana bees are relatively small, they landed on the anther-stigma column of the cardamom flowers multiple times from different directions while collecting pollen which ensured that they also touched the stigma and thus pollinated the flowers. Other favourable foraging attributes included foraging throughout the day, visiting all flowers on a panicle and then moving on to another, and multiple visits to flowers. The favourable attributes translated into a 45% increase in yield compared to natural pollination in fields with a supplementary Apis cerana colony. The fruit set, seed set, and fruit and seed weight (capsule quality) were all significantly higher in plots with an Apis cerana colony than in plots without a colony or with all pollinators excluded. The results suggest that especially in areas where bumblebee populations and other natural pollinators are scarce, Apis cerana can be used to pollinate large cardamom to ensure a reasonable harvest and better quality capsules
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This Package of Practices (POP) was prepared with the goal of promoting climate-resilient cardamom value chain in Nepal
. The intervention is carried out under the ‘Support to Rural Livelihoods and Climate Change Adaptation in the Himalaya – Himalica’, a demand-driven programme funded by the European Union and managed by ICIMOD. The Environment Conservation and Development Forum (ECDF) has joined hands with ICIMOD to implement the pilot project in Taplejung, with the objective of improving the resilience of mountain women and men in selected clusters through designing and implementing context/target community specific interventions on cardamom value chain and its associated sub-chains. The overall objective of Himalica is to reduce poverty among mountain men and women and children by unlocking new livelihood opportunities and promoting more equitable approaches for livelihood improvement and resilient communities. The pilot projects are designed around three broad areas: 1) improved management of resources (ensure the sustainability of the production system), 2) income diversification (adding value by upgrading products, processes, linkages, and diversification of products), and 3) institutional strengthening (with a focus on gender, social inclusion and governance). In line with the overall concept and strategy of Himalica pilots, one important intervention is to develop a POP with a list of technologies/practices which are to be promoted along with training and demonstration strategies for improving cardamom production systems in Taplejung district as a whole and to showcase demonstrated effects in selected pilot villages. The POP provides detailed information on practices and technologies to support local implementing partners including nongovernmental organizations, vocational training institutions, research and academic institutions and communitybased organizations to implement pilot activities aimed at making value chain climate resilient
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The Sikkim Himalaya is part of 34 globally significant biodiversity hotspots and 22 agrobiodiversity hotspots in India
. It encompasses a variety of agroecological zones, with varying dominant farming systems in different zones: pastoralism and agropastoralism in the alpine and trans-Himalayan zones (4,000–5,500 m); mixed farming (subsistence agriculture) in the temperate zone (2,500–4,000 m); traditional agroforestry systems in the subtropical to warm temperate zones (600–2,500 m); and terrace rice cultivation-based mixed farming in the subtropical zones (300–1,700 m). Indigenous farmers in the Sikkim Himalaya have, through generations of innovation and experimentation, established a variety of land use systems to nurture a great diversity of both wild and domesticated plants and animals. Local agrobiodiversity features more than 126 landraces of cereals, including rice (77), maize (26), and millet (7); 18 cultivars of oilseeds; 34 cultivars of pulses/beans; 132 species of vegetables; 38 species of spices/condiments; 33 landraces of tubers/roots; and 64 species of fruit. Sikkim’s traditional system of cultivation also supports more than 200 species of wild edibles, 119 species of multipurpose agroforestry trees, 52 crops with high social and cultural value, and 69 species of plants sacred to indigenous communities. It also has a diversity of land uses, with 15 to 20 field types, and specific land use categories. Similarly, there is a high diversity of domestic animals, with about 21 different local and indigenous breeds. Homesteads on marginal farms make up 40–70% of Sikkim’s total landholdings and account for 50–80% of these households’ requirements. Homesteads are centres of agrobiodiversity and associated traditional ecological knowledge, are traditional sources of food and nutrition, and are important contributors to food and livelihood security among farming communities. Agriculture in Sikkim contributes about 16% of the state’s GDP and supports more than 64% of the population, who sustain their livelihoods on the rapidly shrinking cultivable land available for farming
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Large cardamom (Amomum subulatum) is an economically valuable, ecologically adaptive, and agro-climatically suitable perennial cash crop grown under tree shade in the eastern Himalayas
. In Sikkim, India, the focus of this study, large-cardamom production peaked early in the 21st century, making India the largest producer in the world, but dropped sharply after 2004; Nepal is now the largest producer. This crop is an important part of the local economy, contributing on average 29.2% of the income of households participating in this study. Farmers and extension agencies have worked to reverse its decline since 2007, and thus, there is a steady increase in production and production area. After reviewing the literature, we carried out extensive field research in 6 locations in Sikkim in 2011?2013 to investigate the causes of this decline and measures being undertaken to reverse it, using a combination of rapid rural appraisal, participatory rural appraisal, structured questionnaire, and field sampling techniques. Study participants attributed the decline in large-cardamom farming to 4 broad types of drivers: biological, socioeconomic, institutional/governance-related, and environmental/climate-change-related. Altered seasons, erratic or scanty rainfall, prolonged dry spells, temperature increase, soil moisture loss, and increasing instances of diseases and pests were prominent factors of climate change in the study region. Multistakeholder analysis revealed that development and implementation of people-centered policy that duly recognizes local knowledge, development of disease-free planting materials, training, subsidies, and improved irrigation facilities are central to improving cardamom farming and building socioeconomic and ecological resilience
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