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South Asia is energy-poor, water-stressed, and food-deficient, and these problems are expected to intensify with high population growth, rapid economic growth and industrialization, urbanization, and changing climate
. Although the water, energy, and food security challenges are interconnected, they are dealt with in isolation, which fails to address the challenge of trade-offs and exacerbates the problems. The increased resource scarcity underlines the need for integrated solutions which ensure optimal resource use and maximize benefits. This article uses a nexus perspective to explore possible integrated solutions that support multiple uses of water at different scales and times. The analysis shows that the potential of water resources is underdeveloped and synergies between water, energy, and food are not fully harnessed. With proper coordination and management, water resources can generate multiple benefits for both upstream and downstream areas, including regional public goods such as regional connectivity and flood and drought management
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The sustainable development goals (SDGs) and the Paris agreement target a global cleaner energy transition with wider adaptation, poverty reduction and climate resilience benefits
. Hydropower development in the transboundary Koshi river basin in the Himalayan region presents an intervention that can support the SDGs whilst meeting the regional commitments to the Paris agreement. This study aims to quantify the benefits of proposed water resource development projects in the transboundary basin (4 storage and 7 run-of-the-river hydropower dams) in terms of hydroelectric power generation, crop production and flood damage reduction. A hydro-economic model is constructed by soft coupling hydrological and crop growth simulation models to an economic optimization model. The model assesses the potential of the interventions to break the vicious cycle of poverty and water, food, and energy insecurity. Unlike previous studies, the model (a) incorporates the possibility of using hydropower to pump groundwater for irrigation as well as flood regulation and (b) quantifies the resilience of the estimated benefits under future climate scenarios from downscaled general circulation models affecting both river flows and crop growth. The results show significant potential economic benefits generated from electricity production, increased agricultural production, and flood damage control at the transboundary basin scale. The estimated annual benefits are around USD 2.3 billion under the baseline scenario and USD 2.4 billion under a future (RCP 4.5) climate scenario, compared to an estimated annual investment cost of USD 0.7 billion. The robustness of the estimated benefits illustrates the climate resilience of the water resource development projects. Contrary to the commonly held view that the benefits of these proposed projects are limited to hydropower, the irrigation and flood regulation benefits account for 40 percent of the total benefits. The simulated scenarios also show substantial irrigation gains from the construction of the ROR schemes, provided the generated power is also used for groundwater irrigation. The integrated modelling framework and results provide useful policy insights for evidence-based decision-making in transboundary river basins around the globe facing the challenges posed by the water-food-energy nexus
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Mountain agriculture is more vulnerable to adverse impacts of climate change as it heavily relies on rainfall
. Although the impact of the climate change on agriculture and food security has become a serious concern, so far limited efforts have been made to understand how climate change impacts food security of the mountain communities of the HKH region, how poor households adapt to changing conditions, and what options are available to facilitate better adaptation. The nature and causes of agriculture and food security in mountains is quite different from the plains and require a specific set of policy measures. This chapter aims to provide a better understanding of the vulnerability of mountain agriculture and food security to climate change risks. It analyses the appropriateness of existing policies and programmes for mountains, policy and local level adaptation trends, areas of adjustments, and possible adaptation options such as climate smart agriculture, rainwater harvesting technologies, solar energy for irrigation, and better crop choices based on agro-ecological potential of specific areas conducive to improved food and livelihood security in the mountains. One of key questions that arises in the chapter is “How can the poor and marginalized mountain farmers be included in the adaptation process?â€
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Mountain and hill areas form a substantial part of The Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) region – over 1
.1 million square kilometres or 23% of total land area. They are home to 140 million people, and a further 1.5 billion people downstream depend directly or indirectly on the mountains for a range of goods and services, including water, energy, food, and biodiversity. Most of the large rivers in the BIMSTEC region originate in the Himalaya and other mountains and hills. They are important sources of energy for the lowlands, with most of the region’s existing and potential hydropower production. Mountains are therefore an important source of vital ecosystem services and play a significant role in economic development, environmental protection, ecological sustainability, and human wellbeing. Although the BIMSTEC region has seen rapid economic and social development in recent decades, growth is not uniform across or within countries. Hill and mountain areas have generally lagged behind. These areas face challenges of poor physical connectivity, higher climate change vulnerability, inadequate facilities for regional tourism, and low investment to tap existing economic opportunities. Economic growth and sustainability of both upland and lowland communities is only possible through better integration, improved connectivity, and sustainable natural resource management and use. Regional integration has the potential to contribute to sustained growth, poverty alleviation, and inclusive development. It opens up opportunities for leveraging economic growth and sustainable development within and across the BIMSTEC member countries and to address the challenges of managing the food-water-energy nexus. There is potential for shared benefits may be attained from arising opportunities such regional trade, regional connectivity through waterways, clean energy through hydropower, conserving biodiversity, regional tourism, and mitigation of regional flood risks and damages
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Rice is the most important crop for food security and livelihoods of the rural population in Bihar, India
. In spite of good soil and water resources, rice water productivity (WP) is very low in Bihar. Trends in WP and key factors influencing WP over 20 years (1991–2010) in 11 Bihar districts were analysed using panel data to help elucidate reasons for low WP values. The annual average rice yield of 938 kg/ha, WP of 0.22 kg/m3, and marginal physical productivity (MPP) of 249 g/m3 are very low in Bihar compared to both the national average for India and other rice growing areas in the world. Rice WP and MPP were higher for the garma (dry) season than for the kharif (monsoon) season. Temporal analysis showed that WP was slowly declining in most districts, while spatial analysis showed a significant variation in WP across the districts. Regression analysis showed that the availability of irrigation facilities, occurrence of flood and drought, and cropping intensity had significant influence on rice WP. Causes for temporal and spatial changes in WP are highlighted and actions to improve rice WP in Bihar are suggested
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ABSTRACTWe assessed an impact of bay leaf value chain intervention programme on household welfare in mountain agroforestry context
. We used primary survey data from project and comparison villages and propensity score matching for creating a valid counterfactual. Results indicate that households in the project villages planted 75 per cent more bay leaf trees, produced 170 per cent more bay leaves and sold more quality products at higher prices than households in comparison villages; per-capita household income increased by NPR 5000?7300, share of bay leaf income in total household income increased by 8?10 per cent and level of poverty declined by 6?8 per cent. Households with female respondents benefited more in some aspects but not so in others, especially in enrolling children in school
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Changes in climate, associated hazards, local adaptations in agriculture, and socioeconomic factors affecting adaptation were investigated using data from a large survey of 2310 households (HHs) in the Koshi River Basin (KRB), Nepal
. More than 80% of HHs had perceived changes in climate in the 10 years preceding the survey, and 20–40% had perceived increases in the occurrence of droughts, dry spells, floods, and livestock diseases. Around 36–45% of crop-growing HHs perceived a decline in the production of staple crops such as paddy, wheat, maize, and millets, which was mainly attributed to climate change and related hazards. The decline in local food production meant that HH dependence on external sources for food had increased. Only 32% of HHs had taken some form of adaptive actions in agriculture to address these challenges; actions included not planting certain crops, introducing new crops, changing farming practices, not rearing certain livestock species, and investing in irrigation. The factors affecting the likelihood of a household undertaking adaptive actions included literacy of the head of household, household size, size of owned agricultural land, diversification of income sources, and insurance. Based on these findings, the study has suggested some approaches in the KRB which could contribute to building agricultural resilience to climate change
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The status of food and nutrition security and its underlying factors in the Hindu-Kush Himalayan (HKH) region is investigated
. In this region, one-third to a half of children (<5 years of age) suffer from stunting, with wasting and underweight also being very high. The prevalence of stunting, wasting, and underweight in children is particularly high in some mountain areas such as Meghalaya state in India, the western mountains and far-western hills of Nepal, Balochistan province in Pakistan, eastern Afghanistan, and Chin state in Myanmar. Food habits in the HKH region are changing. This has led to a deterioration in traditional mountain food systems with a decline in agrobiodiversity. Factors such as high poverty and low dietary energy intakes, a lack of hygienic environments, inadequate nutritional knowledge, and climate change and environmental degradation are also influencing food and nutrition security in the HKH region. To achieve sustainable food and nutrition security in the mountains, this study suggests a multi-sectoral integrated approach with consideration of nutritional aspects in all development processes dealing with economic, social, agricultural and public health issues
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Large cardamom (Amomum subulatum Roxb
.) is the main cash crop and an important livelihood option for farming communities in the eastern Himalayas – especially Sikkim, parts of West Bengal, eastern Nepal, and southern Bhutan. The crop is self-fertile but requires cross pollination for production of capsules. Scientific information on the eco-biology of large cardamom pollination is scarce, but studies have shown bumblebees to be the main pollinators. Previous studies have indicated contradictory results on the role of indigenous honeybees, particularly Apis cerana, in pollination of large cardamom. Some studies reported that Apis cerana was a ‘pollen robber’ that collects all the pollen from a flower without actually pollinating it, resulting in severe crop decline. However, beekeeping is common in large cardamom farming areas of Sikkim and Nepal and the bee is a common visitor to the flowers. Farmers in these areas have never observed a decline in large cardamom yield due to the presence of Apis cerana. This publication describes the results of a detailed investigation into the role of Apis cerana in large cardamom pollination, designed to establish whether the bee is a pollinator or pollen robber and determine its impact on crop yield and quality. The research was conducted on farmers’ fields located at different sites in Sikkim, India: Lingee Payong (1,100 masl) and Hee Martam (1,500 masl) in West Sikkim, and Jaubari (2,000 masl) in South Sikkim. The methodology consisted of on-farm experimental research and data collection through regular field observations, and a review of the literature on large cardamom pollination. Three experimental procedures were used at each site: (i) observations of the foraging behaviour of Apis cerana bees on cardamom flowers, and the impact of pollination by Apis cerana and other pollinators on capsule yield and quality (capsule weight and number of seeds per capsule), in a plot with a medium-sized healthy colony of Apis cerana placed at the centre; (ii) observations of the foraging behaviour of bumblebees and other pollinators, and of capsule yield and quality, in a plot about 250 m away from the plot containing the Apis cerana colony; and (iii) observations of capsule yield and quality in plants caged in a nylon net (3 x 3 x 3 m) to exclude all pollinators as a control. The results of the study showed that Apis cerana is an effective pollinator of large cardamom. Although the Apis cerana bees are relatively small, they landed on the anther-stigma column of the cardamom flowers multiple times from different directions while collecting pollen which ensured that they also touched the stigma and thus pollinated the flowers. Other favourable foraging attributes included foraging throughout the day, visiting all flowers on a panicle and then moving on to another, and multiple visits to flowers. The favourable attributes translated into a 45% increase in yield compared to natural pollination in fields with a supplementary Apis cerana colony. The fruit set, seed set, and fruit and seed weight (capsule quality) were all significantly higher in plots with an Apis cerana colony than in plots without a colony or with all pollinators excluded. The results suggest that especially in areas where bumblebee populations and other natural pollinators are scarce, Apis cerana can be used to pollinate large cardamom to ensure a reasonable harvest and better quality capsules
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